The Fall of the Roman Empire to the Republic - 580 Words

From the early history of the Roman Empire, within the beginnings of the Republic, we will examine the period when the reign of kings comes to an end and social classes become established among the populace. From this point, will see how the oppression of one class against another leads up to a breaking-point with the revolt of one against another. Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was the seventh, and last Etruscan king (reigned from 534 to 510 BC) of Rome who was overthrown and exiled for his cruelty (wikipedia, 2013). This effort was accomplished through the united efforts of the Patrician and the Plebeian social classes that stratified Roman society. Despite his best efforts at reclaiming the rulership through the support of Lars Porsenna, the king of Clusium, he was thwarted when Porsenna made peace with the Romans and ended his aid to the Tarquins (forumromanum.org, 2009). Within Roman society, two distinct socio-economic classes known as Patrician and Plebeian existed. This stratification of the people was solely based upon one’s birth. Rome was being transforming into an aristocratic republic where power and rulership was dominated by the Patrician class, not the general population as in a democratic republic. The origins of separation of classes is often debated among historians, however it is commonly agreed that the Patrician families were those within the priesthoods and the Senate as religious advisors. As such, they would essentially give their blessings uponShow MoreRelatedFall of the Roman Empire758 Words   |  4 PagesTaylor Davino Professor Horsley HIS 126 3 March 2010 The fall of the Roman Empire Political, economic and social aspects were all involved in the fall of the Roman Empire. In 395 A.D., Rome was divided into two empires, with one capital in Rome and the other in Constantinople. During that time, the western Roman Empire was being invaded by barbarian tribes from the North. In 410, the Visigoth tribe succeeded in conquering the western capital in Rome. In 476, the western EmperorRead MoreFall Of The Roman Empire Essay1464 Words   |  6 Pages FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE: Jesse R. Allen HIST 115 12/11/2016 â€Æ' Rome, once a city-state with conquests on Asia-Minor, Afria, Corsica, Spain, and Sarinina had become a ruling empire in the Mediterranean by 150BCE (Ridley, The Fall of the Roman Republic 2016). This dominant empire remained on power for many centuries and came to an end in a few mere decades. By the turn of the 5th century, the western empire, functionality of this empire had ceased to work while its eastern counterpartRead MoreThe Roman And Roman Empire1068 Words   |  5 PagesThe Roman Empire, which was centered in the city of Rome, was the most extensive western civilization of ancient times. With its major advancements and prosperity it is hard to believe that the Roman Empire suddenly collapsed and fell into a time known as the Dark Ages. 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The Roman Empire differed from the Athenian Amphictyony and the Assyrian Empire as well as the sunder later emperors such as VespasianRead MoreComparing the Roman Empire and the United States of America Essay1294 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"While stands the Coliseum, Rome shall stand; When falls the Coliseum, Rome shall fall; And when Rome falls - the World.† Lord Byron. This essay will discuss the similarities of military, economics and systems of government between the Roman Empire of the 6th century BCE and the United States of America of the 20th century. History has revealed that all superpowers fall eventually, although much time has passed since the glory days of Rome we see in 2015 the largest superpowerRead MoreRome Essay Question1622 Words   |  7 PagesStudy Guide Question #1 Rome – early empires Here is what I am hoping to do when I take write my response to this question. Definitely doesn’t matter how you do, just thought I would clarify for any one still a bit confused. My plan is to take the main examples provided for why each is successful and format it as follows: Roman Republic, Roman Empire, both, hit on other civilizations, misc. I’m planning to link examples that explain how other emperors didn’t do what Rome did correctly directlyRead MoreRise of the Roman Republic Essay953 Words   |  4 PagesRISE OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC Rome became a powerful empire engulfing much of Europe, North Africa, and parts of Asia and what seemed like this great entity called the Romans were always in the search of more territory and land to conquer and assimilate into their ever growing vast empire. However, this was not always the case, before Rome became one of the greatest empires in all of history, Rome was a republic. They were government consisted of a Senate who much

The Expected Pattern Of Development Of Children - 1387 Words

Unit 2 - Development and well-being 0-5 years Nargis Gafar D1: Describe the expected pattern of development of children aged 0-5 years for one of the areas of development: The expected pattern of children’s early years development from 0-5 years consists of Physical, Intellectual and Social and Emotional development. Children aged 0-5 years are expected to be able to walk, talk and interact with other children and adults by the time they are aged 5. Social Development is where a child learns to interact with other people and how to behave in different social situations and how to understand other people s feelings and their own feelings and how to manage them. Social and emotional development of babies and young children should be encouraged. This can be done through activities provided at any childcare settings or within the home. They should be given opportunities to interact with other children and adults. For example, they should play with their parents and have playdates with other children To give children the best opportunities in developing their social and emotional skills you need to give the child support and show them how to be with others, how to be kind to others and help them understand why people may behave in certain ways. They also need to be given positive interaction by the people around them. D2: Identify suitable methods for observing children’s holistic development: Some suitable methods of observing children’s holistic development areShow MoreRelatedDescribe the Expected Pattern of Children and Young Peoples Development from Birth to 19714 Words   |  3 PagesTDA 2.1 Child and Young Person Development 1.1 Describe the expected pattern of children and young people’s development from birth to 19 years, to include: physical, social, emotional, behavioural, intellectual and communicational development. 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Rooting reflex. | Smiles of contentment from 5-6 weeksRead MoreThe Expected Pattern of Children and Young People’s Development from Birth to 19 Years2466 Words   |  10 PagesDescribe the expected pattern of children and young people’s development from birth to 19 years Through a young person’s development, from birth to 19 they are expected to follow a development pattern including physical, social, environmental, behavioural, intellectual and communicational. The expected pattern is seen as the average time period it would take to accomplish these skills. The expected pattern starts at 0-3 years where a child is expected to develop the most. 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Birth; Recognise mothers voice and smell Able to cry to let everyone know they need help Actively learning through touch, taste and hearing Swallowing and sucking reflexes- ensuring that babies can feed and swallow milk Rooting reflex- babies move their head to look for a nipple or teat if the cheek and mouth are touched, helping the babies to find milk Read MoreExplain the Reasons Why Children and Young Peoples Development May Not Follow the Expected Pattern697 Words   |  3 PagesUNDERSTAND CHILD AND YOUNG PERSONS DEVELOPMENT Unit 022 Outcome 3 Understand how to monitor children and young people’s development and interventions that should take place if this is not following the expected pattern 2 Explain the reasons why children and young people’s development may not follow the expected pattern There are many reasons and factors why a child is not following the expected pattern of development. For example the child may be emotionally unsettled due to a number ofRead MoreUnderstand the Expected Pattern of Development for Children and Young People from Birth – 19 Years.2122 Words   |  9 PagesUnderstand Child and Young Person Development Outcome 1 Understand the expected pattern of development for children and young people from birth – 19 years. |AGE |PHYSICAL |INTELLECTUAL COGNITIVE |COMMUNICATION |SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, BEHAVIOURAL MORAL | |At |Born with swallow and suckle reflex and will ‘root’, |Will recognise the sound of their primary Read MoreDescribe the expected pattern of children and young peoples development from birth to 19 years, to include: - physical development3356 Words   |  14 PagesAttachments TDA 2.1.1 ac[1.1a] Describe the expected pattern of children and young people s development from birth to 19 years, to include: - physical development When looking at the expected pattern of children and young peoples development from birth to 19 years, it is important to remember that each child will develop and grow at different rates. Reaching milestones at a more advanced pace or a slower pace than the broad average. This expected pattern includes physical, communication and intellectualRead More1.1 Describe the Expected Pattern of Children and Young People’s Development from Birth to 19 Years2315 Words   |  10 Pages1.1 Describe the expected pattern of children and young people’s development from birth to 19 years, to include: * Physical development * Communication and intellectual development * Social, emotional and behavioural development Child development stages describe different milestones through a child’s growth from birth to 19 years. There is a wide variety of aspects that may include genetic, cognitive, physical, family, cultural, nutritional, educational, and environmental factors that

Architecture Platform and Track Layout

Question: Discuss about theArchitecturefor Platform and Track Layout. Answer: Introduction The government saw the need to construct a new central passenger station that would replace ad-hoc construction that existed by then hence the construction of Flinders Street Station. Flinders Street Station, an icon of the culture of Melbourne is treated as a symbol of the capital of Victoria since time memorial. More often than not, the building is used as an imaginary representation of Melbourne city and the popular quotes used in Melbourne Ill meet you in the steps and Ill meet you under the clocks resulted from the clocks found at the main entrance. These clocks are used to show the departure times of the trains depending on the lines they are running1. Flinders Street Station was constructed between 1905 and 1910. It was designed by HPC Ashworth and James Fawcett who were employees of the railway, a contract which was awarded on a competitive basis and involved seventeen architects. The design of the location of the entrance, platform and track layout, platform roofing type, room layouts and even the concourses had already been decided hence the competition was just for an appropriate building2. The architects named the design Green Light and borrowed heavily from the French Renaissance style which was composed of a tall clock tower and a large dome. The tower and the large dome was one of the unique features of this building. A three-arched roof that ran from east to west over the survives of the concourse was yet another attractive feature in this design. The construction was done in phases and by two different contractors. Peter Rodger who was a Ballarat builder was the one awarded the initial tender but was terminated in 1908 after the company recorded very slow progress in the construction process which was blamed in the contractor. Royal Commission took over the construction in May 1910 to completion. [1]Construction of the domes commenced in 1906 and it involved massive and strong foundation in its structure since it was extended over the railway tracks2. Initially, it was intended that the facades of the building be done in stone but this changed during the construction as stone was thought to be too expensive and instead red brick rendered with cement was adopted for use in the main building. On the Flinders Street side on the ground level, grey granite was used for numerous details so as to display the significance of this great public work. The southern faade of the principal building as well had a unique material finish. Lightweight timber frame with zinc sheets cladding painted in red was adopted. This aimed at turning the balconies which were inside in the train shed into corridors as opposed to open access areas that they would otherwise have been. The gate at the southern front was constructed using lightweight timber clad. To make the bricks used on this facade look big, zinc sheets which were painted in red color were scored into the blocks3. The first three floors of the principal building contain the largest number of rooms with most of them being located at the frontage of Flinders Street. These rooms are mainly to serve the purposes of the railway even though there are provisions for emergency as well. Ticket windows are constructed at each entry points of the station. The interiors of the building are very spacious allowing both visual and spatial continuity. The building encompasses numerous elements among them curves, lines, planes (both vertical and horizontal) as well as masses. These different elements are well organized by the architect to bring out a building that stands out as one element and not an antagonizing structure. The differences in the surface finishes of all the elevation created a different feeling as one moves around the building thereby eliminating dominance of a specific element or feature4. The strategies of design and architectural language of this building have their origin from the immediate context of the site and its place within Melbourne city. The reorganization of the station is in such a way that the historic fabric has been restored and revered. The final design concisely responded to the diversity in the site conditions including the city, the surrounding riverbank and the Federation Square. This can be illustrated from the patterns of the underpasses, bridges, vaults and the way in which the park has been oriented toward an organic movement between the river and the city5. The manner in which these features are stitched together in the design as well display the contextual relevance of the design. The architect managed to successfully harmonize the diverse site by ensuring each of the facades of the building responded appropriately and excellently to the nature of the site for which it was in contact with. The building thus turned out to be in harmony both within itself and with the contextual setting on which it sat. The design also facilitated a civic precinct which was friendly to pedestrians by creating important linkages that were referenced to the key nodes of the Federation Square and the concourse thereby giving the square a new outlook6. This ensured a preserve of the cultural heritage of the dwellers of the city of Melbourne. [2] The decision to relocate the concourse opened the stations eastern edge generating a classic covered public space opposite the Federation Square. The orientation of the building contributed greatly to the revitalization of the important components of heritage thus enhancing a view of the historic built fabric. The interior spaces provided at the major transition nodes between Flinders Street and the concourse give strategic mechanisms that allow for new activities on the site. These transition nodes also give opportunities for fresh public functions to this part of the city7. A new riverscape is created by the expansion of the riverbank that contains double height vaults of brick, entry points and retail tenancies. The patterns of the openings of the building create and increase high degrees of porosity of the building, a feature exhibited by the town as well8. References Boyd, Robin. The Puzzle of Architecture. Melbourne: Cambridge Uni. Press, 2015. Brown-May, Andrew. Federation Square. Washington: Hardie Grant Publishing, 2013. Davies, Jenny. Beyond the Facade: Flinders Street, More Than Just a Railway Station. London: Jenny Davies, 2009. Fairfax, Vicki. A Place Across the River: They Aspired to Create the Victorian Arts Centre. Panama: Macmillan Education AU, 2012. Goad, Philip. Melbourne Architecture. Manchester: Watermark Press, 2007. Holdings, Allia. Flinders Street Station: Melbourne's Festival Marketplace. Kansas: Allia Holdings, 2011. Maitland, Barry. The new architecture of the retail mall. London: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 2010. Perren, Claudia. Expanded Architecture At The Rocks. New York: Lulu.com, 2013.

Motivation Plan Operating Room (Surgery Department)

Interview Synopsis and Findings I interviewed the supervisor in the department of surgery within St. Mary Hospital. The hospital is one of the largest healthcare centers in Atlanta that is sponsored by the Catholic Church. According to the supervisor, the surgery departmentis a very dynamic section of the health center.Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on Motivation Plan: Operating Room (Surgery Department) specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The department has ten workers. The department handles all surgery requests from different clients and cases of referrals. The supervisor indicated that the department, especially the operating room, needs the personnel to integrate their competencies in handling different tasks to enhance the wellness of the patients. The personnel in the operating room are charged with direct care of the patient. An operating room supervisor must hold a degree in management and must be a reg istered nurse. Management skills are required because the supervisor and other personnel in the department have administrative duties besides offering health care services. As indicated by the supervisor, the personnel in this department must understand the competencies and attitudes of the team members in the operating room. The management is required to ensure the entire team is motivated and satisfied with their work. Motivation and satisfaction influence the development of quality services. However, the supervisor noted that there is a need to improve on the current structures of organizational learning within the surgery department as a remedy for improving efficiency in service delivery. This paper will offer an explicit proposal on the best practices of increasing motivation, satisfaction, and performance of the personnel in the surgery department at the hospital. Motivation Plan The success of a firm’s human resource productivity depends on the organization of its hum an resource management. Reflectively, labor as a factor of production, determines the gross output, performance, and goal achievement at optimal resource use.Advertising Looking for coursework on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The St. Mary Hospital has been struggling with human resource management problem as a result of weaknesses in employee motivation, satisfaction, and performance. The next section of the paper presents a comprehensive employee compensation plan targeting the ten employees of the surgery department. Besides, the treatise offers a work breakdown structure in addition to a communication plan for the project. The employee motivation, satisfaction, and performance plan Reflecting on Lewin’s three-step theory, the unfreezing, transformation, and refreezing determine the level of performance in an organization. According to this theory, the first step involves the realization that a challenge exists in the organization. The second step involves transformation of this challenge into a development goal after which implementation step concludes by developing a solution for the challenge (Ellemers, Gilder, Haslam, 2004). The best way to motivate the department’semployees is by giving them responsibilities for achieving something and the authority to do it in their own way. Through this approach, employees will be empowered and they will feel trusted and valued by the management personnel and the hospital. Naturally, human beings would wish for motivation through mutual consent and internalized empowerment and appreciation. Empowerment unleashes plenty of energy and motivation. Reflectively, the motivation and energy aspects of appreciation function simultaneously at micro and macro levels to facilitate optimal functionality or productivity.Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on Motivation Plan: Operating Room (Surgery Department) speci fically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Empowering the employees will ensure a stable and sustainable win-win situation as employees will be motivated to work without much supervision from the management or their supervisors (Espevik, Johnsen, Eid, 2011). As opined by Maslow, in the hierarchy of needs theory, â€Å"primary needs are basic before tertiary needs and must be addressed in that order† (Ellemers, Gilder, Haslam, 2004, p. 36). The needs include safety, physical needs, love, self esteem, and room for actualization. Job satisfaction is as a result of a systematic and continuous environmental and personality interaction that fosters the right attitude as indicated in the objectives of this hospital. In the case of the surgery department, social and highly skilled employees should be allocated the right duties than keeping them in a secluded environment. When assigning duties, personality checks are necessary to promote self satisf action while the same time improves performance. In addition, periodic self evaluation and interdepartmental rotation ensure a change of environment (Zhou, Wang, Chen, Shi, 2012). Over time, the results will reliable, effective, and profitable to the department. Goals of the proposed motivation plan Improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the current mode of communication between the employees and the organization through incorporation of multicultural training. Ensure that the various available methods appeal to the employees. Objectives of the motivation plan To ensure that the organization improves the standard of services that employees receive. To increase the number of employee motivation strategies that the organization handles on a daily basis in a bid to accomplish the organization’s objectives. To ensure smooth flow of information within and without the organization. To increase the number of staff available to attend to clients without creating undue pressu re on the finances. To improve accountability towards the involved stakeholders. Differences in attitudes, emotions, personalities and values Emotions Since all the personnel in the department are professional adults, the issue of negative emotions is rarely sighted. However, there is the need to develop policies for informingthe positive outlook in this intensive work environment. Attitudes Majority of employees in the department have positive attitudes in their duties. However, there are few individuals with relatively negative attitudes.Advertising Looking for coursework on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Personalities There are several employees who portray different personalities. There are some personnel who are introverts and extroverts. Some of the employees are social while others are not very social. Values Since all the employees share the value of professionalism, communication is relatively stable. However, there is a need to revise the values in intra and interpersonal communications to ensure that personal beliefs do not interfere with service delivery. Transforming each difference into positive behavior Emotions Emotional intelligence has significant contribution towards general wellness and good health since it facilitates the development of personal and social competence. Developing personal and social competence through emotional intelligence will improve an individual’s self esteem and self efficacy (O’Neil, Drillings, O’Neil, 2012). The emotional intelligence orientation module has remained active in developing dependence of interest attached t o an activity, creating proactive relationships, and monitoring their interaction with physical and psychological health. Attitudes Properly balanced attitude pays off since the personnel will learn to appreciate the essence of tolerance and need to stay active. By encouraging a hyperactive tolerance level, the personnel will be able to internalize the need for optimizing output level through pre-planning of activities and accommodating extras (Ellemers, Gilder, Haslam, 2004). Values There is a need to establish universal values at the department. Therefore, it is critical to balance the feedback with the efficiency goals as a remedy towards inclusiveness and active participation which translates into desirable performance. Through focus performance management, the surgery department will be in a position to create clear goals on performance appraisal, manage a positive feedback channel, and offer a continuous and systematic coaching to ensure that employees perform at optimal prod uctivity level (Espevik, Johnsen, Eid, 2011). Personalities The Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior encompasses the elements of subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, intension, and the behavior. It is important to promote positive personalities among the employees in the surgery department. Thus, management may promote productive behavior in the organization. The intension of the productive behavior is to micromanage any challenges that might interfere with employees’ productivity. As a result, the employees will perceive such organization as supportive of their welfare (O’Neil, Drillings, O’Neil, 2012). Implementation The strategies in this plan require the surgery department to take a collaborative perspective in dealing with the subject matter. In essence, this aspect means that the plan requires the management of the department and the staff to work together at various levels. The main requirement for the creation of such a set-up is an exch ange of information and knowledge relevant to the project. Actualization of the tactics that this plan proposes require the management of the department to work closely with the staff and allow the staff freedom as they accomplish their duties. It also enables the staff at the department to seek advice and any other forms of aid. Lastly, the organization will apply the use of service-for-service method. The method is an innovative way through which the department can greatly reduce operations costs, improve employee performance, improve organizational efficiency, and job satisfaction. It would also eliminate the need to outsource for extra employees during busy days. References Ellemers, N., Gilder, D., Haslam, S. A. (2004). Motivating individuals and groups at work: A social identity perspective on leadership and group performance. Academy of Management Review, 29(3), 459-478. Espevik, R., Johnsen, B. H., Eid, J. (2011). Outcomes of shared mental models of team members in cross t raining and high-intensity simulations. Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making, 5(4), 352-377. O’Neil, H., Drillings, M., O’Neil, F. (2012). Motivation: Theory and Research. London: Routledge. Zhou, L., Wang, M., Chen, G., Shi, J. (2012). Supervisors’ upward exchange relationships and subordinate outcomes: Testing the multilevel mediation role of empowerment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(3), 668. This coursework on Motivation Plan: Operating Room (Surgery Department) was written and submitted by user Will H. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Essay Sample on Flirting and Sexual Harassment in College

Essay Sample on Flirting and Sexual Harassment in College Flirtation is a kind of act that is geared towards giving signs that insinuate desire for intimacy. For instance, it may involve non-verbal expressions and gestures or words. Flirtation is done differently among different cultures. In college for instance, female students are known to flirt through their dressing. They wear extremely short dresses that reveal their thighs. In addition, they feel that when men see the cleavage and other parts, they will be attracted to them. However, sexual harassment refers to coercion into sex and other sexual acts. While flirting is done willingly and often playfully, sexual harassment is often done forcefully. In college for instance, it occurs through rape cases, where female students are raped. At times tough, it may result from flirting. The intention of flirting is not normally sex. Thus, when a woman puts on short cloths, a man may be tempted to have sex, and later force her into it (Golden, R, Peterson, F, Hilgenkamp, K, Harper, J Boskey, 2 010). Gender differences always exist, where men are seen to be more authoritative than women are. Thus, men are more involved in sexual harassment, because they force women into sex. However, women have been observed to flirt more than women do, and thus attract sexual cases such as rape. The position of authority always matters. When two people are dating, for instance, the one in authority will always take the lead. If it is the man, then he may force the woman into certain act including sex. However, when it is a peer, they may both possess authority. In essence, however, the one in authority always dominates and controls sexual acts (Shaw, 2000). Concern about sexual behavior has changed the behavior of individuals. For instance, women avoid walking alone at night for fear of rape. They do not also dress suggestively, as they try to put on longer clothes. However, some people have continued to flirt, increasing chances of rape. For instance, every Friday night in college, I have met women who are drunk and sleeping across the road. This means that they still afford to expose themselves to rape, because they go find get too drunk to find their way to the hostels. Recently a woman discovered she was pregnant but could not remember when she had sex. Later, she connected her situation to a night that she had drunk herself, and when she woke up, she was lying across the road. She only discovered later about the rape. Though she claims she was sexually harassed, I think her dressing also suggested that she needed she was in an unusually short dress, and lay across the road, almost naked and drunk (Greenberg, J, Bruess, C Conklin, 2010). Sexual harassment in college is on the increase as female students continue to expose their bodies by wearing short clothes. It also occurs due to cohabiting, because many partners always stay together. Through this, women are more prone to be harassed sexually by their male partners. For this reason, the college has put up policies that ensure female and male students do not stay together. In case, one is found, disciplinary action is taken. In addition, male students are not allowed into women’s hostels past 7pm. However, incase students are harassed they are advised to inform the security immediately. This allows them to get quick medical attention to avoid cases of pregnancies and other sexually transmitted diseases. Such incidences have been reported many times, though are reducing because of the policies employed (Michigan State University Law, 2008).

50 Million Years of Horse Evolution

50 Million Years of Horse Evolution Apart from a couple of bothersome side branches, horse evolution presents a neat, orderly picture of natural selection in action. The basic storyline goes like this: as the woodlands of North America gave way to grassy plains, the tiny proto-horses of the Eocene epoch (about 50 million years ago) gradually evolved single, large toes on their feet, more sophisticated teeth, larger sizes, and the ability to run at a clip, culminating in the modern horse genus Equus. There are a number of prehistoric horses, including 10 essential prehistoric horses to know. As part of the evolution of horses, you should also know the recently extinct horse breeds. This story has the virtue of being essentially true, with a couple of important ands and buts. But before we embark on this journey, its important to dial back a bit and place horses in their proper position on the evolutionary tree of life. Technically, horses are perissodactyls, that is, ungulates (hoofed mammals) with odd numbers of toes. The other main branch of hoofed mammals, the even-toed artiodactyls, are represented today by pigs, deer, sheep, goats, and cattle, whereas the only other significant perissodactyls beside horses are tapirs and rhinoceroses. What this means is that perissodactyls and artiodactyls (which counted among the mammalian megafauna of prehistoric times) both evolved from a common ancestor, which lived only a few million years after the demise of the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous period, 65 million years ago. In fact, the earliest perissodactyls (like Eohippus, the earliest identified common ancestor of all horses) looked more like small deer than majestic equines! Hyracotherium and Mesohippus, the Earliest Horses Until an even earlier candidate is found, paleontologists agree that the ultimate ancestor of all modern horses was Eohippus, the dawn horse, a tiny (no more than 50 pounds), deer-like herbivore with four toes on its front feet and three toes on its back feet. The giveaway to Eohippus status  was its posture: this perissodactyl put most of its weight on a single toe of each foot, anticipating later equine developments. Eohippus was closely related to another early ungulate, Palaeotherium, which occupied a distant side branch of the horse evolutionary tree. Five to ten million years after Eohippus/Hyracotherium came Orohippus (mountain horse), Mesohippus (middle horse), and Miohippus (Miocene horse, even though it went extinct long before the Miocene epoch). These perissodactyls were about the size of large dogs and sported slightly longer limbs with enhanced middle toes on each foot. They probably spent most of their time in dense woodlands, but may have ventured out onto the grassy plains for short jaunts. Epihippus, Parahippus, and Merychippus- Moving Toward True Horses During the Miocene epoch, North America saw the evolution of intermediate horses, bigger than Eohippus and its ilk but smaller than the equines that followed. One of the most important of these was Epihippus (marginal horse), which was slightly heavier (possibly weighing a few hundred pounds) and equipped with more robust grinding teeth than its ancestors. As you might have guessed, Epihippus also continued the trend toward enlarged middle toes, and it seems to have been the first prehistoric horse to spend more time feeding in meadows than in forests. Following Epihippus were two more hippi, Parahippus and Merychippus. Parahippus (almost horse) can be considered a next-model Miohippus, slightly bigger than its ancestor and (like Epihippus) sporting long legs, robust teeth, and enlarged middle toes. Merychippus (ruminant horse) was the largest of all these intermediate equines, about the size of a modern horse (1,000 pounds) and blessed with an especially fast gait. At this point, its worth asking the question: what drove the evolution of horses in the fleet, single-toed, long-legged direction? During the Miocene epoch, waves of tasty grass covered the North American plains, a rich source of food for any animal well-adapted enough to graze at leisure and run quickly from predators if necessary. Basically, prehistoric horses evolved to fill this evolutionary niche. Hipparion and Hippidion, the Next Steps Toward Equus Following the success of intermediate horses like Parahippus and Merychippus, the stage was set for the emergence of bigger, more robust, more horsey horses. Chief among these were the similarly named Hipparion (like a horse) and Hippidion (like a pony). Hipparion was the most successful horse of its day, radiating out from its North American habitat (by way of the Siberian land bridge) to Africa and Eurasia. Hipparion was about the size of a modern horse; only a trained eye would have noticed the two vestigial toes surrounding its single hooves. Lesser known than Hipparion, but perhaps more interesting, was Hippidion, one of the few prehistoric horses to have colonized South America (where it persisted until historical times). The donkey-sized Hippidion was distinguished by its prominent nasal bones, a clue that it had a highly developed sense of smell. Hippidion may well turn out to have been a species of Equus, making it more closely related to modern horses than Hipparion was. Speaking of Equus, this genus- which includes modern horses, zebras, and donkeys- evolved in North America during the Pliocene epoch, about four million years ago, and then, like Hipparion, migrated across the land bridge to Eurasia. The last Ice Age saw the extinction of both North and South American horses, which disappeared from both continents by about 10,000 BCE. Ironically, though, Equus continued to flourish on the plains of Eurasia and was reintroduced to the Americas by the European colonizing expeditions of the 15th and 16th centuries CE.

Article review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Review - Article Example ) â€Å"The goals of SOX were to enhance the transparency of financial information, reaffirm auditor independence, and define corporate governance – the responsibilities of corporate boards and audit committees†. The author has pointed out the advantages of Sarbanes act on the economy and young generation, as many of them are indulging in educating themselves on the aspects of this new law. However, one fact that distracts the reader is that, paragraphs are divided in to real small units. Moreover it can be realized that, the third paragraph is slightly complicated, which can turn the readers perplexed and confused. Many a times, readers can be of ordinary category and they can find theses sentences overwhelming or distracting. On the other hand, the best part is that, the third paragraph gives out statistical fact and figure by mentioning historical evidence on the financial security acts. In the third paragraph, there is also statement about the merits of the Sarbanes Act on the financial and investment sector Further, more proceeding into the later paragraph, it can be understood that the writer is projecting on the quality of PCAOB (Public Companies Accounting Oversight Board) in giving organizations an opportunity in securing their investment and financial transaction processes. It is stated in the article that, PCAOB will establish quality control in auditing, maintain ethical independence and standards in a registered public accounting firms. Moreover, the authenticating nature of PCAOB is revealed in the article, where in it shows how the accounting firms, media and press consider the above listed act. Another highlight of the PCAOB is detailed as its ability to give employment opportunity to people in information technology field. According to (Rosavich)â€Å" Documenting internal control involved a thorough review of systems and also meant additional employment opportunities for information technology professionals†. The writer had presented the

Research Proposal Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Research Proposal Example In the wake of these corporate failures, basic principles and rules are being reviewed and strengthened in order to reinstall investor confidence. At the heart of these corporate governance reforms is the common interest in the effectiveness of boards of directors. Corporate governance codes, experts and activists have long advocated changes in the board structure. As a result of the successful implementation of corporate practice codes in the private sector corporations, the government has decided to implement the system in public/civil departments and government offices. The public offices are supposed to benefit the people who pay tax to the government on various assets and income earned by them. The government departments should exhibit transparency, and accountability to the various stakeholders including general public. These departments have a key role in a society where people's money is handled by government departments when they left with excess income allowed by tax author ity. In this context, the present study s an attempt to examine the impact of corporate government practices implemented by revenue commission in the UK on the customers'/ tax payers' satisfaction. Corporate governance is a conscious and sustained effort on the part of a corporate entity to strike a judicious balance between its own interest and that of its stakeholders. It is the relationship among various participants in determining the direction and performance of corporations. It is not merely enacting legislation; but instilling an environment of trust and confidence as ethical business behavior and fairness cannot be legislated. It aims at minimizing the chances of corruption, malpractices, financial frauds, and misconduct of management. It provides various codes and regulations to establish effective governance system and to monitor the performance of corporations in the context of transparency, advocacy, accountability and social contribution to the society. Governance is not just a pious platitude. It is the accumulated outcome of inspiration, influence, wisdom, guidance and control, which keeps a body or an organization not only moving but also moving on the right tr ack and at the right speed. It is inherent in the very nature of cosmic as well as human systems. However, corporate governance is essentially a state of mind and a set of principles based on relationships. It can work only if the people entrusted with these responsibilities believe in and are committed to the principles that underline effective corporate governance, which in ultimate analysis, is a way of life and not a mere compliance with a set of rules. Ideals of corporate governance primarily need transparency, full disclosure, fairness to all stakeholders and effective monitoring of the state of corporate affairs. It is, thus, concerned with values, vision, and visibility. Sound corporate governance practices lead to greater management accountability, credibility, and enhanced public confidence. Statement of the Problem With the corporate scandals in the early 2000, corporations across the world are under pressure to convince and ensure that the various stakeholders are happy with the system of corporate governance. Many new standards/policies of Corporate Governance (CG) and changes in accounting and reporting

Gun Control Persuasive Paper Essay Example for Free

Gun Control Persuasive Paper Essay A gun control law is any law that restricts the use, purchase, or possession of any firearms (Conservapedia). These laws are implemented to reduce the use of firearms to authorized members of a state’s government. Each state in America has its own laws regarding gun control; however, among all, California has the strongest laws, scoring 81 out of a 100 (O’Mara). Gun control laws are necessary in a state because they decrease violence, increase government’s protection in the state, and decrease the lethalness of other crimes. Gun control laws can reduce violence and crime. In the United States, 67% of crimes in 2010 were committed with firearms (Rogers, 2007). This means that majority of crimes committed in America had guns and other firearms involved. If firearms are prohibited in the state, then in theory, crime rates will go down by 67%. Guns have the ability to take someone’s life. Having that said, disallowing the use of guns can not only decrease crime rates, but lower causalities as well. Ozanne-Smith et al (2004) arrived at a similar conclusion in a study conducted in Victoria, Australia after examining the trend in the firearm-related deaths in the context of strong legislative reform. They found the following: â€Å"Significant and dramatic declines in rates of firearm related deaths occurred in Victoria and Australia after periods of strong legislative reform. Statistically significant reductions in firearm related suicides were observed after legislative reforms. In 2000, rates of firearm related deaths were less than two per 100 000 population for Victoria and Australia compared with 10.4 per 100 000 population for the United States. In Victoria, reductions in the numbers of registered firearms of 25% and of licensed shooters of 15% were seen over the four years between 1997–98 and 2000–01† (Ozanne-Smith, 2004). Prohibiting civilians from using guns can increase the effectiveness of the police in one’s state. When a person owns a gun, in theory he can protect himself and therefore does not need protection from the police. Thus, he becomes independent. However, if a person is not allowed to own a gun, he becomes more dependent upon the government for his safety and the police and the government now becomes more aware of the importance of their task in protecting their state. Lastly, the restriction of firearms can decrease the lethalness of crimes other than murder and homicide. Often times, minor criminals like thieves and robbers commit their crimes with a firearm, when in reality; the commission of their crime does not require it. They simply use the guns for self-defense. As a result, they are more likely to kill their victims rather than just stealing from them. Therefore, they not only steal, but they kill as well. The prohibition of firearms can lessen a criminal’s ability from committing another crime by decreasing the probability of murder and homicide. However, firearms have its benefits as well. But if the aforementioned is not used in the right way, it will lead to serious consequences: including death. That’s why gun control laws are implied in a state: to regulate and prevent the misuse of such firearms.

Conversations of Thought :: Conversating Thinking thoughts Essays

Conversations of Thought There are written and read conversations taking place this very moment. The written conversation is one that happens between me (ongoing thought- conversation) and what is written onto paper. The read conversation takes place when a person, other than me, picks up what I’ve written and reads it. Thought-conversation is going on in my writing to you today; there are some going on in collegiate assembly halls, and in the conscious minds of many. However, I cannot—nor can you at the moment—read (make believe you’re not reading this right now---oops, I’ve just Ong’ed you) or hear most of these arguments, debates, agreements, disagreements, assertions that carry on. If that is true we are fine for the moment. Granted, one is standing adjacent to and overhearing an English seminar that is discussing and synthesizing the views and works of a range of the most influential modern theorists of the humanities and social sciences. This confined seminar ( audience) is expected to interact with, value, debate, and/ or construct opinions for or against a text—thus leading some to new thought-conversational thought processes. This, however, excludes the standby-audience member, the reader-listener, as an active participant of the dominant- authoritative discourse from that seminar. Hence, the author’s (the professor) methodology creates a specific, yet unrestrained, â€Å"aimed-towards them† discourse and not for the standby reader-listener. â€Å"His† audience (who says that an audience is his anyway?) will have to later â€Å"write†, â€Å"talk† and â€Å"think† about texts. This notion does not stand alone—paradoxically speaking of the standby reader-listener who is standing alone and adjacent to the seminar. These â€Å"standby† reader-listeners aren’t â€Å"intentionally† or even, in this case, â€Å"fictionally† given the right to speak in this confined pre-registered, fore-planned discourse. Likewise, they aren’t fictionally thought of as potential readers. With this analogy, I find confluence in central arguments made by Ong, Bartholomae and Foucault that are worth mentioning. I am not disputing the rhetoric of these three great thinkers/ readers. I am simply attempting to â€Å"define a position of privilege, a position that sets [me] against a ‘common’ discourse†¦Ã¢â‚¬  working â€Å"self-consciously, critically, against not only the ‘common’ code but [my] own† (Bartholomae 644). However, for now, I am suggesting that a reader doesn’t â€Å"have to play the role in which the author has cast him† (Ong 60), but that there is more to it.

Deontological Ethics and Emanuel Kant Essay

Describe Kant’s theory of Duty as the basis of morality (33 marks). Emanuel Kant was a German Philosopher who lived in the late 18th century and was arguably one of the greatest thinkers of all time. He came up with a guide to morals in direct opposition to teontological or consequential theories. Many people use his ethics as a guide to living a moral life, but what exactly is Kant’s ethics? How did he believe we should face moral problems and how can we apply it in our every day lives? Instead of situation based theories his theory was deontological ethics. This is a very absolute and objective form of ethics, which has been worked out using a rational thinking process. Kant believed that an ethical theory should be universalisable to be morally correct. This means it must be able to be applied to everyone all over the world regardless of situations or circumstances. Kant believed for this to be possible it must contain something that was ‘unconditionally and universally good’. This must me something that is ‘intrinsically good’ which is good in itself, the highest good ‘without qualification’. This thing that determines the moral worth of our actions cannot be instrumentally good, something that only becomes good pending the results of the action or like some things such as happiness, which are possible of making a situation morally worse. Kant believed that there was only one thing that is the right thing for us to do in any situation to make us morally correct. He said that ‘a morally good man is a man of good will’. Kant said that it was ‘impossible to conceive anything in the world as good without qualification, except good will’. For something to be of good will, it is not dependent on the goodness of what it effects or accomplishes. If it were, then it could not be considered to be of unconditional value and intrinsic goodness for it would become a ‘means to an end not an end in itself’. This leads us to therefore conclude that the consequences of any moral action are irrelevant. Kant describes the most important thing as being ‘not what the act accomplishes but the motive behind the act’ (Moral Problems – M Palmer). However we may ask what exactly is the right motive to have? Kant simply states that ‘ a good wills only motive is to act for the sake of duty’. For an act to be universally, intrinsically good in itself, it must not be done because of its consequences, nor from self-interest, fear or as a means to an end, rather only because it is our soul duty to do it. We should always act for duties sake simply because it is the right thing to do. We need to be very clear as to what this specifically entails. Kant is saying that we can not do a moral act because of self-interest. This is understandable because if we are doing it merely because we get something good out of it i.e. a reward or a good name then we are not doing it because we simply know it is the right thing to do. However we also need to be aware that this also includes the idea that we can not do a moral act because it comes naturally to us. We cannot do it because we derive pleasure or enjoyment from doing something we know is right or because we will feel good about ourselves if we help other people. This is because we are doing it indirectly for self-pleasure and this again is wrong, it does not include the presence of good will. Even if duty does coincides with what we naturally do, it does not make the act intrinsically good because we are doing it for another reason besides doing it because we know it is our duty to do so. The fact that we happen to be doing what duty prescribes is just luck. It is wrong because the moment anything that duty says we should do becomes something we no longer enjoy, we won’t do it. We cannot be for example honest as long as it pleases us to do so. Kant therefore concludes that ‘this will fails to be good will, just as if they had acted from self-interest. So far Kant has told us that a morally good person is a ‘man of good will’ and that a man of good will is one that follows where his duty lies. This is done for the very reason that it is the right thing to do and we have a responsibility to do it. It does not come from self-interest, calculating consequences, looking at specific circumstances or from pleasure out of doing something for someone else. However we still need to know ‘where our duty lies’ and what it is exactly that we are supposed to do to become man of good will who does what duty foretells him to do. We can be sure however that because it is a deontological argument, that we have an absolute principle to follow that does not look at consequences of particular actions or changes in certain situations. It is absolute and definite and we can be sure that there are no exceptions to the rule. We also know that it has to be universably applicable ‘to everyone irrespective of their situation’ (M Palmer – Moral Problems). It therefore must contain something that all humans have in common so we can all know where our duty lies in different situations and Kant believed that this was Reason or rationality. He said that humans are rational beings, we are all capable of resolving problems using reason. We all have an innate intellectual power that we are born with which we can use to work out rationally where our duty lies. Kant believed that it was unacceptable to look at consequences of a particular action and then decide if we should do it or not because there is not enough evidence for us to make a proper decision from. Rather we need to look at the actual experience of moral obligation and this is the feeling of what we think we ‘ought to do’. Following what our duty prescribes involves the idea that what we feel we ‘ought’ to do is what is right. We should all have a feeling of moral obligation; we all know the good and right thing to do so therefore we should do it. Therefore our duty becomes to obey our rational thinking which prescribes what the morally correct thing we ought to do is. However, we still have not established what the ‘supreme principle of morality is’. This one rule that we all must follow as a means to our rational thinking is something which Kant calls the categorical imperative. By imperative we mean something that tells us what actions would be good in the form of a command, usually using the words ‘I ought’. A categorical imperative therefore is an act that is solely good in itself or intrinsically good. The act is done because of the very ‘nature’ of the act itself and not to achieve something else as a means to it. It is done only ‘for its own sake’ and is free from ulterior beneficial motives. On the other hand we have hypothetical imperatives as an opposite. These acts are done because of a desire to achieve something else. For example if I exercise more I will become fitter. It tells us what acts are good as a means to something else. Palmer uses the example of telling the truth to illustrate the difference between the two. A categorical imperative would be ‘tell the truth’ because it is good in itself and always is the right thing to do. The hypothetical imperative would be ‘if you want to be trusted, tell the truth’ because we are gaining something for ourselves by doing the right thing i.e. we are trusted. Once we know the distinctive feature of the principle of morality, we can analyse it more deeply so we can specifically know exactly what it is that defines a moral act as being good. Kant said that a morally good act had intrinsic value. This is where something is good and valuable in itself. The very nature of them makes them valuable regardless of anything else. For example Kant believed that Humans were of intrinsic value and therefore should be treated as an ‘end in themselves’. The opposite to this is therefore is instrumental valuable which is when something is good only because of what it can achieve and therefore is treated as a ‘means to an end’. Kant said this is not how we should treat other human’s i.e. to use them to gain something for ourselves. He is saying that all humans should be treated equally and the same, we should treat everyone as we would treat ourselves. So for example, racism would always be wrong in the eyes of Kant. This links to the Christian idea of the Golden rule to ‘love thy neighbour as thyself’ which Jesus, the ultimate example of human goodness, instructed his people to follow. The final and key feature that Kant placed emphasis on when concerning the categorical imperative was the acts ability to be universalisable. A key quote he used was ‘ I ought never to act in such a way that I can also will that my maxim should become a universal law’. By this he is implying a method we can use to see exactly what laws are good because they have ‘moral worth’. Kant stated that if the law can be applied to everyone in the world without being contradicted then it is good. For example we can universalise the maxim ‘do not murder’ to all of society regardless of any situation without there being contradictions. By contradiction, Kant means one of two things, Contradiction in the Will or Nature. If we cannot universalise an act because of either one of these contradictions then we must conclude that it is morally wrong. By contradiction in the law of nature, Kant is referring to rules that cannot be applied because they are ‘straightforwardly self contradictory’ – (M Palmer – Moral Problems). The maxim or rule can not be applied universally because it contradicts the laws of nature meaning it physically is impossible to do. For example the maxim ‘never speak until you are spoken to first’ is not possible to keep because if everyone applied it then no one would talk at all because we would always be waiting to be spoken to. From this we can see that following this maxim would not be the good thing to do. The Contradiction in the will is not when something contridicts itself, rather a maxim that the person involved ‘could not possibly want to see universalised’ (Palmer). We may find that if it was applied universally we could be in the situation where we would not want everyone to apply it because it would help us if they didn’t. For example the maxim ‘do not give money to the poor’ because we may find ourselves one day, through no fault of our own, poor and homeless and then we would want people to give money to us to help us survive. Kant gave one simple rule to following universalisabiltiy and this was ‘ Act only on a maxim through which you can at the same time will that it be a universal law’. With this he prescribed a formula which we can all follow to see if a maxim is universalisable. Before acting we have to ask what rule we would be following if we carried out this act and this is the maxim. Then we are to ask ourselves if it was possible and would we would be willing for it to be followed by everyone at all times in all places. If it cannot then it is a contradiction in either the law of nature or in the will. Then quite simply, if it can be universalised do it, if not then don’t. In conclusion we can see that to follow Kants deontological ethics we must ‘act solely in accordance to duty and for the sake of duty only’ (Palmer – Moral Problems). It has been a very popular theory, which many people follow, sometimes without being aware of it. However we do need to ask is it of practical use in out lives today? Can we honestly say that it is useful, practical and realistic when making moral decisions? In my next section I shall be looking at these questions in a little more depth to see if we can logically come up with an answer.

Cultural Dimensions Essay

1)Give the definition and objectives of â€Å"your† cultural dimensions (what does the dimension measure? what do you want to measure? For instance : ability to work in groups, individual empowerment †¦ (for the individual/collective dimension). Diffuse and Specific orientated cultures – The most apparent difference is the ability to separate private from professional life. In diffused cultures, the private and professional lives are closely linked whereas specific cultures keep them separate. Additionally, specific cultures promote directness, precision, and transparency. Also, people from specific orientated cultures are able to remove themselves from a situation in regards to principles and values. This means that specific orientated cultures encourage objectivity. This is in contrast with the diffuse orientated culture that is more indirect and highly subjective. Furthermore, it can be said that this culture is more informal and social-orientated. 2)Illustrate the dimension referring not only to the professional life. Describe situations in which the dimension may impact behaviors. For instance : when somebody cries in the classroom,†¦ (for the neutral/ affective dimension). For example, if a manager is invited to dinner by employees, in a specific-orientated culture, the manager might decline the invitation as he or she wouldn’t feel it is appropriate whereas in a diffuse orientated culture this might be seen as an opportunity to bring informality to the relationship. So in a company based in Germany, this invitation would be seen as inappropriate because Germany has a more specific culture whereas in Finland this wouldn’t necessarily be frowned upon as it is more diffuse orientated. 3)In order to measure â€Å"your† dimension among persons of different nationality, prepare a series or questions (MCQ or Yes/No type are easier to analyze).

Organizational Strategies and Chronological Order

Organizational Strategies and Chronological Order The word chronological comes from two Greek words. Chronos means time. Logikos means reason or order. That is what chronological order is all about. It arranges information according to time. In composition  and speech, chronological order is a method of organization in which actions or events are presented as they occur or occurred in time and can also be called time or linear order. Narratives and process analysis essays commonly rely on chronological order. Morton Miller points out in his 1980 book Reading and Writing Short Essay that the natural order of events - beginning, middle, and end - is narrations simplest and most-used arrangement. From Camping Out by Ernest Hemingway to The Story of an Eyewitness: The San Francisco Earthquake by Jack London, famous authors and student essayists alike have utilized the chronological order form to convey the impact a series of events had on the authors life. Also common in informative speeches because of the simplicity of telling a story as it happened, chronological order differs from other organizational styles in that it is fixed according to the timeframe of events which happened. How Tos and Who-Done-Its Because time order is essential in things like How-To presentations and murder mysteries alike, chronological order is the preferred method for informative speakers. Take for example wanting to explain to a friend how to bake a cake. You could choose another method to explain the process, but putting the steps in order of timing is a much easier method for your audience to follow - and successfully bake the cake. Similarly, a detective or officer presenting a murder or theft case to his or her team of police would want to retrace the known events of the crime as they occurred rather than bouncing around the case - though the detective may decide to go in reverse chronological order from the act of the crime itself to the earlier detail of the crime scene, allowing the team of sleuths to piece together what data is missing (i.e., what happened between midnight and 12:05 am) as well as determine the likely cause-effect play-by-play that led to the crime in the first place. In both of these cases, the speaker presents the earliest known important event or occurrence to happen and proceed to detail the following events, in order. The cake maker will, therefore, start with decide which cake you want to make followed by determine and purchase ingredients while the policeman will start with the crime itself, or the later escape of the criminal, and work backward in time to discover and determine the criminals motive. The Narrative Form The simplest way to tell a story is from the beginning, proceeding in time-sequential order throughout the characters life. Though this may not always be the way a narrative speaker or writer tells the story, it is the most common organizational process used in the narrative form. As a result, most stories about mankind can be told as simply as a person was born, he did X, Y, and Z, and then he died wherein the X, Y, and Z are the sequential events that impacted and affected that persons story after he was born but before he passed away. As X.J. Kennedy, Dorothy M. Kennedy, and Jane E. Aaron put it in the seventh edition of The Bedford Reader, a chronological order is an excellent sequence to follow unless you can see some special advantage in violating it. Interestingly, memoirs and personal narrative essays often deviate from chronological order because this type of writing hinges more upon overarching themes throughout the subjects life rather than the full breadth of his or her experience. That is to say that autobiographical work, largely due to its dependence on memory and recall, relies  not on the sequence of events in ones life but the important events that affected ones personality and mentality, searching for cause and effect relationships to define what made them human. A memoir writer might, therefore, start with a scene where he or she is confronting a fear of heights at age 20, but then flash back to several instances in his or her childhood like falling off a tall horse at five or losing a loved one in a plane crash to infer to the reader the cause of this fear. When to Use Chronological Order Good writing relies on precision and compelling storytelling to entertain and inform audiences, so its important for writers to determine the best method of organization when attempting to explain an event or project. John McPhees article Structure describes a tension between chronology and theme that can help hopeful writers determine the best organizational method for their piece. He posits that chronology typically wins out because themes prove inconvenient due to the sparsity of occurrences that relate thematically. A writer is much better served by the chronological order of events, including flashbacks and flash-forwards, in terms of structure and control.   Still, McPhee also states that theres nothing wrong with a chronological structure, and certainly nothing to suggest its a lesser form than thematic structure. In fact, even as long ago as Babylonian times, most pieces were written that way, and nearly all pieces are written that way now.

How to Reduce Your Financial Stress in College

How to Reduce Your Financial Stress in College For many students, college is the first time they are in control of the majority of their finances. You might now suddenly be responsible for paying your own bills, working a job that you need to make ends meet, and/or making the scholarship money you get in August last through December. Unfortunately, these new financial responsibilities come within a context where money is often unusually tight. So how can you avoid being stressed about your financial situation while in college? Get a Job that Doesnt Stress You out If the responsibilities at your job are making you stressed out, its time to find another job. Make sure, of course, that your hourly wage is enough to help you meet your financial obligations. On that same note, however, your job shouldnt be providing a paycheck and causing you to seriously stress out. Look for a good on-campus job or one near campus that offer a relaxed work environment that is supportive and understanding of your life (and responsibilities) as a college student. Make a Budget The very idea of a budget often makes people think of having to sit down with a calculator, track every penny they spend, and go without the things they want the most. This, of course, is only true if thats what you want to make your budget look like. Set aside 30 minutes at the start of every semester to list what your expenses will be. Then figure out how much youll need each month to cover these expenses and what sources of income youll have (on-campus job, money from your parents, scholarship money, etc.). And then ... voila! You have a budget. Knowing what your expenses will be ahead of time can help you figure out how much money youll need and when. And knowing that kind of information will greatly reduce the financial stress in your life (not to mention having to bum off of your friends meal plans at the end of each semester when yours gets low). Stick to Your Budget Having an awesome budget doesnt mean anything if you dont stick with it. So check in with your financial self every week about how your spending looks. Do you have enough in your account to still meet the expenses youll have for the rest of the semester? Is your spending on track? If not, what do you need to cut down on, and where can you find some extra funds during your time in school? Understand the Difference Between Wants and Needs Do you need a winter jacket while in college? Of course. Do you need to have a brand-new, expensive winter jacket every year while in college? Definitely not. You may want to have a brand-new, expensive winter jacket each year, but you definitely dont need one. When it comes to looking at how you spend your money, make sure you differentiate between wants and needs. For example: Need coffee? Fair enough! Need coffee at $4 a cup at the coffee shop on campus? Nope! Consider brewing some at home and bringing it to campus in a travel mug that will keep it warm throughout your first class of the day. (Added bonus: Youll save your budget and the environment at the same time!) Cut out Costs Wherever Possible See how long you can go without spending any money, either with cash or through your debit and credit card(s). What were you able to live without? What kinds of things could be cut from your budget that you wouldnt miss too much but that would help you save money? What kinds of things could you easily do without? What kinds of things are expensive but not really worth what you have to pay for them? Saving money in college might be easier than you first think. Keep Track of Where Your Money Goes Your bank may offer something online or you can choose to use a website, like mint.com, that helps you see where your money goes each month. Even if you think you know where and how you spend your money, actually seeing it graphed out can be an eye-opening experience―and key for you to reduce your financial stress during your time in school. Avoid Using Your Credit Cards Sure, there can be times to use your credit card in college, but those times should be few and far between. If you think things are tight and stressful now, imagine what theyd be like if you racked up a lot of credit card debt, couldnt make your minimum payments, and had creditors calling to harass you all day long. While credit cards can be good in a pinch, they should definitely be a last resort. Talk to the Financial Aid Office If your financial situation in college is causing you significant stress, it may be because youre in a situation that is financial unsustainable. While most students experience tight budgets, they shouldnt be so tight that the stress they cause is overwhelming. Make an appointment to talk to a financial aid officer to discuss your financial aid package. Even if your school cant make any changes to your package, they might be able to suggest some external resources that can help you with your finances―and, consequently, with your stress levels. Know Where to Get Money in an Emergency Some of your financial stress may be coming from not having an answer to the What will I do if something major happens? question. For example, you might know you dont have the money to fly home if theres a family emergency, or you might not having the money to fix your car, which you need to get to school, if you were in an accident or needed a major repair. Spending a little time now to figure out where to get money in an emergency can help alleviate the stress that comes from feeling like youre walking on thin financial ice all of the time. Be Honest With Your Parents or Sources of Financial Support Your parents may think theyre sending you enough money or that your taking an on-campus job will distract you from your academics, but the reality can sometimes be a little different. If you need to change something in your financial situation, be honest with those who are contributing to (or depending on) your college finances. Asking for help might be intimidating but it might also be a great way to ease up on the factors causing you stress day in and day out. Make Time to Apply for More Scholarships Every year, its impossible to miss the news headlines that report on just how much money in scholarships goes unclaimed. No matter how tight your time is, you can always find a few minutes here and there to find and apply for more scholarships. Think about it: If that $10,000 scholarship only took you 4 hours to research and apply for, wasnt that a good way to spend your time? Thats like earning $2,500 an hour! Spending half an hour here and there to find scholarships can be one of the best ways to spend your time and reduce, over the long-term, the financial stress in college. After all, arent there more exciting things youd like to be focusing on?

The Awakening by Kate Chopin Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Awakening by Kate Chopin - Research Paper Example The controversial ending of the novel shall also be looked into and problematized. Its implications and how it shapes the critic’s response to the character shall be analyzed in this paper. Critical responses drawn from famous essays on The Awakening shall shape the views put forth by this paper which shall be sought to be modified and incorporated. These views shall be used to support and further the arguments that shall be put forth in this paper. Kate Chopin’s The Awakening Kate Chopin’s work, at the time of its publication (the late nineteenth century), created quite a stir. It was one of the first novels that portrayed a woman, comfortably placed in life, who chooses to rebel against the lack of choice that life presents her with. Chopin’s protagonist, Edna Pontellier, is a woman who is married to a wealthy businessman, who according to a patriarchal society, would be considered to be a dutiful and loving husband. He provides Edna with every material comfort imaginable and is a very caring husband; still, Edna chooses to rebel. Conservative reviewers of the time could not digest such an action by the protagonist of a well-known author. Edna’s rebellion, however, is not against the comforts that her life provides her; it is against a system that refuses to accord her the kind of respect that she feels she deserves: that which is given by the society to an artist, a respect different in its nature from that which was provided to a woman merely for the fulfillment of maternal and wifely duties. Critics like Margo Culley have talked about how Edna is a â€Å"solitary soul† (Culley 247). She talks of how Edna’s solitude leads her to explore new areas of activity that eventually lead to her sexual awakening. This leads her to enter into relationships with other men, in what she initially believes to be steps that are liberating. However, she later realizes that she represented nothing but a conquest for men like A lcee Arobin. This, Culley remarks, forces her back to her solitude that follows a recognition of the failure of both forms of awakening, social and sexual, to free her from the oppressive social framework that she inhabits. Edna’s awakenings are thus always accompanied by a disillusionment with the mode of awakening that she adopts. This problem needs to be analyzed at length. Going over the main events of the novel might be helpful, in this regard. Edna Pontellier, disillusioned with her life as a married woman who seeks fulfillment only through her roles as a wife and mother, distances herself from her husband and from her motherly duties. She undergoes a sexual awakening that leads her to extra-marital affairs that fail to fulfill her needs. She moves into another house in order to lead what she considers an independent life. This attempt too, fails her. She eventually commits suicide, driven to desperation by her failed attempts to attain respectability in a society that refused to provide women with it. Edna’s problem can be seen as the problem of a woman who fails to break out of the life that she creates for herself. In as much as this is true, Edna is as much of a culprit as the society. Edna, throughout the novel, is unwilling to break free of the luxuries that life provide for her. Even when she chooses to move into a new apartment, she does so using her inheritance from her father, which is again, patriarchal wealth, part of a social system that Edna tries to break out, in the

GNLD and its product Nutritional Supplements Assignment

GNLD and its product Nutritional Supplements - Assignment Example It is through the fast changing health industry that new ways and methods of diagnosis and promotion of better health has been implemented. All these proceedings have brought about patient care, worker efficiency, and hence better health. To achieve these objectives, several companies like GNLD, which manufacture and sell nutritional food supplements, have been introduced. This product has however been impacted by market forces as discussed in this paper. Degree of Rivalry With the increased need for better health, and the extensive research being carried out in the health industry, rival firms have increased competition drawing the profits that GNLD used to make initially. This has made the competition imperfect; hence, each other firm is struggling to achieve competitive advantage and a higher market share than its rival company. In addition, the controversy on the quality of products of the increasing nutritional food supplements companies and slowed down the market growth. This h as consequently led to need for storage of the products hence high cost. Further, some of the products are perishable thus; the company decides to sell the products at relatively lower prices. The exit barrier in any health related firms are high. This is because the costs of plants and machinery cannot be forgone thus the firm decides to keep competing no matter the state in the market. Though successful, GNLD has been forced to keep competing due to this factor (http://www.mlm-home-business-training.com/GNLD-Int-mlm-leaders-call-team-money-training-scheme-scam/secretsuccess.htm). Threats of Substitutes In a free market economy, restriction of entry into, and exit out of the market is not prohibited. This means that competitors with related commodities will venture in to the market. This threat will definitely occur since the demand of the products of GNLD has been affected by the prices changes in substitute product. For instance, a survey carried out in Kenya showed that GNLD pro ducts are highly affected by the prices from TIASHI, a competing food supplement company. From the research, it was found out that to become part of the marketing team in GNLD, a sum close to $36 is required then the individual should purchase products of high value. For TIASHI, a sum of $18 is required and the initial purchase is relatively lower. This determines the prices at which each the products are sold. Evidently, the close substitute products have constrained the ability of GNLD to raise prices (http://www.healthybusiness.co.za/GNLD%20Products%20Guide/introduction/i3.html). Buyers bargaining power This is the power potential buyers have on any industry that is producing commodities. In many market structures, the forces of demand and supply determine prices of commodities. It is obvious that buyers will expect such market structures. Since GNLD does not exist as a monopoly, the prices at which the food supplements are sold should be dependant of the market mechanisms. On th e contrary, the food supplements from GNLD have fixed prices. The only advantage extended to the buyer is the ability to buy smaller quantities. This means that the buyer does not have bargaining power. It is thus possible in such a case to shift to other substitutes which give the

Business Law (Interbational) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Business Law (Interbational) - Essay Example Schafer (31-46) explicitly describes the current rules applicable to the taxation of companies operating internationally. For examples, multinational companies or enterprises, and firms sited in another locality different from the residence of the people in charge of the companies’ administration. The following taxation principles are in operation: Establishment of framework for international taxation: Schafer (31) strongly believes that the first step in determining what kind of taxes to pay to which locality begins by establishing the framework for the taxation. The importance of the framework is to stipulate: one, whether a jurisdiction is entitled to tax income from an internationally run firm; two, the allocation formula among the entities that could claim the rights to the tax income; and, finally, preventive measures to avoid unduly double taxation. Jurisdiction issue: Schafer (33) defines a jurisdiction as the â€Å"company’s residence country where its main activities are concentrated, and the company utilizes the benefits provided by the residence country†. Some of the benefits the residence country (a tax haven, possibly) provides to the company may include economic resources, security or legal, financial, physical and social infrastructures that could be used at a cheaper cost compared with the expensiveness of such benefits at the company owners’ home countries, as in the case of the three friends from OECD countries (Schafer 33). And tax incomes are traditionally paid to the jurisdiction where is company is situated. Technically, a company’s jurisdiction could be described as the place where the company is registered or incorporated. In case it is unclear to ascertain the exact jurisdiction of a company based on its legal registration, the company’s place of economic allegiance, that is , where its main management structure and business operation reside could be taken as the

The Neoclassical Synthesis Hicks Economics Essay

The Neoclassical Synthesis Hicks Economics Essay Those who are strongly wedded to what I shall call the classical theory, will fluctuate, I expect, between a belief that I am quite wrong and a belief that I am saying nothing new. It is for others to determine if either of these or the third alternative is right. (ÃŽÅ ¡eynes, General Theory, p. v) It is usually considered as one of the most important achievements of the Keynesian theory that it explains the consistency of economic equilibrium with the presence of involuntary unemployment. It is, however, not sufficiently recognized that, except in a limiting case to be considered later, this result is due entirely to the assumption of rigid wages and not to the Keynesian liquidity preference. (Modigliani, 1944, p. 65) 11.1 Introduction Many economists, soon after the publication of the General Theory (1936), set out to formulate and, at the same time, to clarify the difficult and often confusing content of the book. Among the first models that were specified was that of John Hicks (1937 and 1983), which was to constitute the backbone of what today came to be known as macroeconomics.  [1]  In his article Hicks sought to express the central propositions of the General Theory in terms of equations and graphs in the effort to illuminate the relation between the theory of effective demand and liquidity preference. Furthermore, Hicks clarified these relations with the aid of two curves the SI and the LL, which later became known as the IS-LM curves. Hickss model became particularly popular in the US through the work of Paul Samuelson (1948) initially and subsequently through Alvin Hansen (1953). These two economists contributed more than anybody else to the popularisation of the Keynesian analysis and way of thought. The IS-LM conceptual apparatus has displayed remarkable longevity and resilience to various critiques and since the late fifties or early sixties continues to be part of the formal education of economists. At the same time, the IS-LM model plays a significant role by virtue of the fact that macroeconomic analyses, regardless of the approach, are cast to a great extent, in terms of the IS-LM representation of the economy. This is not to imply that the IS-LM model is without its problems; on the contrary, many economists expressed scepticism on the validity of the IS-LM as a representation of the General Theory and the way in which the economy works.  [2]   In what follows we present and evaluatse the Hicksian IS-LM model and continue with Keyness reaction to the Hicksian restatement of the General Theory. Next, we introduce Modiglianis version of the Keynesian model and the chapter ends with some concluding remarks. 11.2 Hickss Analysis of IS-LM Hickss analysis focuses on the relation between savings and investment and seeks to establish the simultaneous determination of income and the rate of interest in both the real and monetary economy. According to Keyness analysis in General Theory income constitutes the principal variable in his analysis; nevertheless one would continue to be in the spirit of Keynes by considering the important role of the rate of interest. Thus, Hicks argued that investment (ÃŽâ„ ¢ ) is a function of the rate of interest (i ) and also income (Y). Formally, we write the following function: I=I(i, Y) Similarly, for the saving function (S ), we have: S=S(i, ÃŽÂ ¥) The equilibrium condition is: I=S From the above equality, we derive the following particular functional formalisation, which is called IS and it is defined as the locus of points that determine a relation between the rate of interest and the level of income, when investment and savings are equal to each other. The IS curved is formed in the way we show in Figure 1, where we have the saving and the investment functions for each income level. i i2 i2 i1 I1=S1 I2=S2 I, S Y1 Y2 Y i A A B B I(Y1) I(Y2) S(Y1) S(Y2) IS (a) (b) Figure 1. Equilibrium in the Goods Market and the IS Curve Let us suppose that we are in an initial equilibrium point such as A and let us further suppose that income increases from Y1 to ÃŽÂ ¥2. It follows that the savings and investment schedules-both have positive their first derivatives with respect to income-shift to the right and their intersection at point Î’ determines the new equilibrium point. It is important to stress that the savings function is much more sensitive to variations in income, and therefore it shifts to the right by more than the investment function.  [3]  The two equilibrium points (i1, Y1) and (i2, Y2) are portrayed in Figure 1(b). In a similar fashion, we generate a series of such points, which when connected form the IS curve.  [4]   Hicks furthermore incorporates in his analysis the money market, where the supply of money (M) is exogenously determined, i.e., ÃŽÅ“=ÃŽÅ“0 /P, where ÃŽÅ“0 is the exogenously given nominal money supply and P is the price level. The demand for money depends on income and the rate of interest, i.e., L=L(i, Y). By invoking the balancing condition M=L, we arrive at M0=L(i, Y ) Figure 2 illustrates the equilibrium position in the money market, where the supply of money, for reasons of simplicity and clarity of presentation, is depicted with a vertical line indicating its exogenous character.  [5]  The demand for money, as we know, is inversely related to the rate of interest, a relation whose details have been analysed in the previous chapter. When income increases it follows that much more liquidity is required for the needs of transactions and therefore the interest rate will increase for any given level of money supply. In terms of a graph we have: (a) (b) M=M0/P L1(Y1) L2(Y2) LM Y i i i1 i1 i2 i2 M/P Figure 2. Equilibrium in the Money Market and the LM Curve We observe that with the supply of money given the demand for money for transaction purposes is directly related to income. The crucial question here is that while we refer to the money market the discussion is in terms of the bond market. In particular, we know that the excess demand for any good leads to an increase in its price until excess demand becomes zero and thus we get the equilibrium point. Since in the case of money market the equilibrium interest rate is derived in the market for bonds (see ch. 9), then how can the same interest rate equilibrate the money market? In Keyness analysis it seems that there is an implicit portfolio stock exchange constraint, which can be written as follows: (L M ) + (Bd Bs) = 0 Where Î’ symbolises the bond market, while the superscripts d and s symbolise the demand for and the supply of bonds, respectively. Consequently, we have the total demand for wealth (L + B d) equal to its supply (M + Bs). If we, further, suppose Walrass Law, then the above equality necessarily holds and if the rate of interest brings equilibrium in the market for bonds then on the basis of Walrass Law we conclude that equilibrium will be also established in the money market, that is L = M. As a consequence, we can follow Keynes, who argued that interest rates are determined in the money market. Because of the Walras Law, equilibrium in the bond market and equilibrium in the money market is one and the same. If, for example, i > i*, then Bd > Bs and because of the stock constraint we get L Returning to the above equilibrium relations, we end up with a system of four equations and four unknowns: Y, i, I, S. The equations IS and LM represent the reduced form of the above system of simultaneous equations, whose solution gives the equilibrium income together with the equilibrium interest rate. In the same figure, we present the interest rate that corresponds to the liquidity trap (iLT), where the demand for money is infinitely elastic. Consequently, the LM curve is essentially the solid line. i IS LM Y iLT i* Y* A B S>I M S>I M S M>L I II IV III S M>L Figure 3. Equilibrium in the Market for Goods and Money The intersection of the two curves at point B determines the equilibrium pair of interest rate and income. Any point above the IS curve indicates excess supply of goods and every point below the IS curve indicates excess demand for goods. As for the LM curve, every point to the right indicates excess demand for money and every point left to the LM curve indicates excess supply of money. The intersection of the two curves defines four quadrants, which are portrayed in Figure 3 above and in each quadrant we indicate the excess demand or supply in the goods and money markets. The mechanism that establishes equilibrium in the economy works as follows: let us suppose that for some reason the economy is out of equilibrium at a point on the quadrant II. In such a case, savings exceed investment and thus income has a tendency to decrease, while the demand for money is greater than the supply and the interest rate tends to increase. The changes are expected to lead the economy towards equilib rium at point B. In an analogous way, we can describe the mechanism that restores equilibrium at points in the other quadrants and this is left as an exercise. 11.3 Hicks and Keynes Hickss article was published in 1937, eight months after the publication of the General Theory. Keynes already knew the content of the article since he was among the first that the article was given to for comments before its publication to the Economic Journal. Keynes never disapproved directly and explicitly the presentation in terms of the IS-LM apparatus. Don Patinkin (1922-1995) in a series of articles argues the fact that Keynes never said anything negative for the formalisation of his theory by Hicks and that this ipso facto implies an adoption of this presentation on his part (Patinkin, 1990). If Keynes disagreed then he would have every reason to emphatically express his disagreement. After all Hickss presentation in a sense was provocative, since Keyness General Theory in it was viewed as a special case of the neoclassical true general theory. Post Keynesian economists claim that the fact that Keynes did not exercise a negative critique can be attributed to his idiosyncrasy that would not pay attention to anyones writings which might concern his General Theory. On the other hand, Keynes did not have any reason, to express, at least in the beginning, his strong disagreement to Hickss presentation. It is possible that he did not think that Hickss article would meet the success that it finally met (Put footnote 6 here).  [6]  It is certain that he disagreed with Hickss view as this can be judged by a careful reading of his correspondence with Hicks and from the article that he wrote in the Quarterly Journal of Economics (1937), where he summarised his views. Specifically, he placed special emphasis, once again, on the fact that economies are characterised by uncertainty. Hickss approach, is characteristically different from that of Keyness. We know from Pasinetti (1973) that Keynes followed a sequential analysis starting from the marginal efficiency of capital, and then to the interest rate, to investment and through the investment multiplier to the equilibrium level of income. By contrast, in Hicks, all of the above take place simultaneously, as we show in Figure 3. Furthermore, Hicks in his formulation of the demand for money refers to a single interest rate. In the General Theory, however, we know that Keynes refers to two interest rates, the current and the expected in the long run. Consequently, Keyness analysis is in sharp contrast to Hickss and on top of all we have the issue of uncertainty that permeates the General Theory and is completely absent in Hickss presentation. Another important difference is that Hicks does not refer to the problem of unemployment equilibrium which is so central in Keynes-and really differentiates him from the classics-. Instead, Hicks locates the difference between Keynes and the classics to the interest rate and the issue of whether it increases with investment or not (Barens and Caspari, 1999, p. 219). According to Hicks, in periods of stagnation the interest rate is particularly low and under these circumstances speculators are not willing to hold non-liquid assets; consequently, their demand for money is so high that it absorbs whatever quantity of money is available. Thus, every increase in the supply of money is counterbalanced by a corresponding increase in the demand for money and the rate of interest remains constant. Monetary policy therefore is completely ineffective and it cannot restore the economy to full employment equilibrium. Hicks notes, there are conditions in which the interest-mechanism will not work. The special form in which this appears in the General Theory is the doctrine of a floor to the rate of interest [the liquidity trap] as Sir Dennis Robertson has called it. (Hicks, 1957, p.287) If we suppose that the economy is in the liquidity trap  [7]  , then a monetary policy, regardless of how active it might be, cannot shift the economy beyond the initial equilibrium point. In terms of Figure 4, if the economy is in equilibrium at point A, an expansionary monetary policy will shift the LM curve, for example to the position LM΄, with no consequence what so ever for the initial equilibrium position. LM LM A B C IS IS IS Y i iLT Figure 4. Equilibrium in the Markets for Goods and Money Consequently, Hicks in his model claims that the General Theory is not so general as Mr. Keynes thought, but rather a special case of the neoclassical theory, where the liquidity trap has a prominent position. The truth, however, is that the idea of the liquidity trap is very hard to pin point in the writings of Keynes; of course, there are some sporadic hints in the General Theory, as for example is the following: There is the possibility, for reasons discussed above, that, after the interest rate has fallen to a certain level, liquidity-preference may become virtually absolute in the sense that almost everyone prefers cash to holding a debt which yields so low a rate of interest. In this event the monetary authority would have lost effective control over the rate of interest. But whilst this limiting case might become practically important in future, I know of no example of it hitherto. (Keynes, 1936, p. 207)  [8]   However, Keynes does not discuss this case in any detail so as to claim that this is the hallmark of his theory. What is certain, however, is that the liquidity trap is more Hickss and subsequently Hansens (1953, pp. 122-3) idea rather than Keyness.  [9]  Consequently, the view that the liquidity trap is the essence of Keyness theory is due to the influence that the Hicksian model exerted on macroeconomics and much less to Keynes and his writings. Suppose, now, that for some reason investment increases, and then the increase in the rate of interest follows suit, a result which is consistent with neoclassical theory and with Hickss argument. It is true, that in Keynes the arrow of causality is different from that in neoclassical economics. However, it continues to be true that, under normal conditions, the interest rate increases when investment increases except for the case of the liquidity trap, where only income changes in every change in investment. The trouble, however, with Hickss view is that for Keynes the rate of interest is determined by monetary forces, while in the IS-LM framework the interest rate is determined by real forces. This is an issue that Keynes pointed out in his letter to Hicks. For example we read: From my point of view it is important to insist that my remark is to the effect that an increase in the inducement to invest need not raise the rate of interest. I should agree that, unless the monetary policy is appropriate, it is quite likely to. In this respect I consider that the difference between myself and the classicals lies in the fact that they regard the rate of interest as a no-monetary phenomenon, so that an increase in the inducement to invest would raise the rate of interest irrespective of monetary policy. (Keynes, 1973, p.80) A final point relates to the inclusion of current income in the investment function. Keynes objected to this idea for the reason that income was already included in the definition of the marginal efficiency of capital through the prospective yields. The following quotation from his letter to Hicks, shows that Keynes was not only acquainted with the IS-LM apparatus but also as a modern econometrician argued against the inclusion in the same specification of both income and interest rate. Specifically, Keynes notes: At one time I tried the equations, as you have done, with I in all of them. The objection to this is that it overemphasizes current income. In the case of the inducement to invest, expected income for the period of investment is the relevant variable. This I have attempted to take into account of in the definition of the marginal efficiency of capital. As soon as the prospective yields have been determined, account has been taken of income, actual and expected. But, whilst it may be true that entrepreneurs are over-influenced by present income, far too much stress is laid on the psychological influence, if present income is brought into such prominence. It is of course, all matter of degree. (Keynes, 1973, pp. 80-81). Barens and Caspar (1999) in their discussion of Hicks and Keynes note that while Hicks accepted all of Keyness points he nevertheless insisted in his own formulation for merely pedagogical reasons. 10.4 Modiglianis Synthesis Hickss model does not refer explicitly to the labour market; it is simply confined to demonstrating that there is equilibrium in only two markets that is the market for goods and the market for money. In his model, Hicks explicitly argues that the money wage as well as the general price level are exogenously given. Franco Modigliani (1944) extended Hickss model by including the labour market and the production function. Modigliani argued that the assumption of equilibrium with unemployment cannot be supported on the basis of the liquidity preference theory except for the particular case of the liquidity trap. In general, however, the Keynesian hypothesis can be supported on the assumption of the rigidity in the money wage. For Modigliani, the equilibrium in terms of the IS-LM model implies a pair of interest rate and money income that clears simultaneously the money and good markets. Consequently, we must take into account that the money income (ÃŽÂ ¥ ) is equal to the price level (P ) times the level of the real income (X ). As a result, we may write: Y=PX The level of real income (or output) is a function of the level of employment of labour (ÃŽÂ ). Consequently, we have: X=F(ÃŽÂ ) The level of employment in turn is determined at the point, where the marginal product of labour is equal to wage. Consequently, we have: w=PF-1 (ÃŽÂ ) Up until now we have a system of 7 equations (the three equations above together with the system of 4 simultaneous equations of the IS-LM) with 8 unknowns, that is I, S, i, Y, X, W, P. More specifically, we have the 4 equations of Hickss model: I=I(i, Y) S=S(i, Y) I=S M=L(i, Y) And the three new equations suggested by Modigliani: Y=PX X=F(ÃŽÂ ) w=P F -1(ÃŽÂ ) The system is overdetermined by one equation, the missing equation is the supply of labour. Modigliani in his article invokes Keyness assumption of the given money wage. More specifically, the money wage is given if, and only if, the economy is at a level of output less than full employment. We know that in the neoclassical analysis the supply of labour is a function of the real wage N=F(w/P) so the money wage can be written as w=F-1(N)P Formally, Modigliani stated his condition in the labour market in the following way: w=awo +bPF -1(ÃŽÂ ) Where, a=1, b=0 if ÃŽÂ  a=0, b=1 if ÃŽÂ  = ÃŽÂ f The last equation indicates that if the current employment in the economy is smaller than full employment (ÃŽÂ f ), then Keyness view for the rigidity of money wage holds indeed, that is we have (a=1 and b=0). Money wage is viewed as a datum a result of history or of economic policy or of both (Modigliani, 1944, p. 47). If, however, the economy is at full employment, then the money wage becomes flexible (a=0 and b=1) and the last equation becomes an ordinary supply of labour function. Consequently, the money wage will be determined from the supply of labour at the point of full employment. In Modiglianis presentation we find that the central assumption is the rigidity of the money wage, an assumption which, as with the liquidity trap does not really find any justification in the General Theory, where the nominal wage is being used simply to determine the price level. By contrast, in Modiglianis presentation the nominal wage has another important role to play. This is revealed if we express Modiglianis system of simultaneous equations in terms of wage units or alternatively in terms of labour commanded.  [10]  Thus, we have: investment is given in terms of labour commanded savings is given in terms of labour commanded equilibrium in the goods market equilibrium in the money market income given in terms of labour commanded the production function, which is by definition in real terms the real wage is equal to the marginal product of labour the supply of labour Hence, we have a system of 8 equations and 8 unknowns (I/w, S/w, i, Y/w, ÃŽ, N, w, P ). If, for a moment, we disregard the fourth equation and focus our attention on the remaining 7 equations, we observe that these can determine all the variables but one, that is the money wage. The result is that the supply of money determines the money wage; since this is the only variable that remains to close the system. Such a determination is due to the quantity theory of money. Consequently, Modiglianis system of equations is dichotomised into the real economy-which includes all the equations except the fourth one-and the money economy, that is the equation of equilibrium in the money market. The real economy gives solutions in real terms (7 equations with 7 unknowns, that is I/w, S/w, i, Y/w, X, N, w/P) while the money supply: determines the nominal wage, since the other variables are determined in the real economy. Consequently, the money supply determines the nominal wage and through the real wage it also determines the general price level. Thus, monetary policy may affect real magnitudes in the Keynesian model, contrary to Hickss reasoning according to which the money supply does affect the real economy. Modiglianis analysis leads to the conclusion that flexibility in prices and money wages establishes full employment in the economy. The mechanism that restores full employment works as follows: the existence of unemployment drives down nominal wages and therefore incomes fall. The demand for money for transaction purposes, being directly related to income, falls as well, and with a given supply of money the rate of interest falls as well. From thereon investment increases and the economy moves toward the full employment level of output. Modigliani managed to formalise Keyness argument about the results of the flexibility in money wages. It is important to stress that the pivotal variable in this formalisation of the theory of employment is the idea of inflexibility of money wage. A corollary of this theory is that the role of money is not neutral. For example, the increase in the supply of money affects the price level and reduces the interest rate and thus output and employment are increased. If the nominal wage were perfectly flexible, then moneys role would be neutral since it does not influence the interest rate i, or the liquidity preference L and output remains the same. Consequently, under conditions of a fully flexible nominal wage the increase in the supply of money leads only to an increase in the general price level. Consequently, ÃŽÅ“odigliani concludes that Keyness theory works only in case of inflexibility of the nominal wage. If, however, the money wage is flexible then we derive the usual neoclassical results, where the real economy determines the level of output and employment and the money economy determines the nominal variables of the economy. This does not imply a rejection of Keyness theory; on the contrary, economists accept the idea of inflexibility of the money wage as a stylised fact of modern economies and thus, Keynesian policy is viewed as both theoretically valid and necessary. The problem, however, relates to the theoretical consistency of the Keynesian system that once again became a special case of the general neoclassical model according to which the economy exhibits a sufficient flexibility in prices of commodities and the factors of production. 10.5 Summary and Conclusions In an overall evaluation of the two models we see that they both represent aspects or partial arguments of the General Theory. Nevertheless their major problem in terms of the General Theory is the simultaneity issue and also the treatment of uncertainty. In Hickss article we find an explanation of unemployment and recession as a result of the liquidity trap, which differentiates Keyness theory from the (neo)classical one. In Modigliani, by contrast, the recession is the result of the inflexibility of money wage and not of the lack of effective demand. Commenting on this kind of revision of the General Theory Paul Samuelson in the third edition of his popular text Economics, notes: In recent years 90 per cent of American economists have stopped being Keynesian economists or anti-Keynesian economists. Instead they have worked towards a synthesis of whatever is valuable in older economics and in modern theories of income determination. The result might be called neoclassical economics and is accepted in its broad outlines by all but about 5 per cent of extreme left-wing and right-wing writers. (Samuelson, 1955, p. 212). These efforts to cast Keynesian theory in terms of IS-LM, Samuelson called neoclassical synthesis, since it puts together the neoclassical analysis of investment and savings and the market for labour with the analysis of Keynes about the interaction between the money market and the real level of economic activity. The neoclassical synthesis became the dominant presentation of the General Theory. According to this view, when there is unemployment, then we have Modiglianis supply of labour function with a=1 and b=0, and as a result of the exercise of appropriate monetary and fiscal policy the economy approaches the level of full employment. When the economy approaches the level of output that corresponds to full employment, then once again the neoclassical theory becomes relevant. If our central controls succeed in establishing an aggregate volume of output corresponding to full employment as nearly as is practicable, the classical theory comes into its own again from this point onwards. (Keynes, 1936, p. 378) In general, economists of the neoclassical synthesis argue that although the economy returns to full employment through the price mechanism, nevertheless this is a long run process. Consequently, for immediate results active fiscal and monetary policies are necessary. Modiglianis ideas, which became the foundation of the neoclassical synthesis, and which essentially constitute a Marshallian partial equilibrium approach, became the object of criticism from Walrasian authors. They posited the following question: how is it possible to have equilibrium in all the markets but one? The protagonists of this critique of the neoclassical synthesis are Alex Lejonhufvund and Robert Clower, whose contributions we discuss in the next chapter. Other criticisms included the phenomena of unemployment and later of the stagflation in the late sixties or seventies. Some economists, the monetarists for example, tried to fix the weaknesses of the model and others such as the New Classical economists claimed that the premises on which the IS-LM framework is based are dubious, while New Keynesian economists in the 1980s revived the old Keynesian models by injecting realism and by basing them on microeconomic foundations which simply were not used in the initial models. Whatever happens to the current macroeconomic debates and the various criticisms launched against the IS-LM models, one thing is certain, that these will continue to be part of the formal education of future generations of economists. Questions for Discussion and Thought Write down the Hicksian system of equations. Draw a graph with the IS-LM system of equations and assuming a disequilibrium situation describe the dynamics of attaining equilibrium. To what extend does Hickss model represent Keyness General Theory? What was Keyness reaction to Hickss IS-LM representation of the General Theory? Discuss Modiglianis Neoclassical Synthesis. To what extent does his model differ from Keyness? What are the major similarities and differences between Hickss and Modiglianis models? Critically evaluate the following statement: I will assume all markets with the sole exception of the labour market are in equilibrium. Notes on Further Reading Hickss (1936) article is easy to follow, but the exposition of ideas (not visions) is really dry. The reader discerns an effort on the part of Hicks to express Keyness ideas in terms of equations and graphs without, however, the proper textual documentation. As we have mentioned, at the time that Hicks presented his article in the econometric society meeting at Oxford, two other related papers were presented in the same meeting by Meade and Harrod. Darity and Young (1995) present the details of these three articles a